Risk factors

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  • Cyberbullying

There isn’t a straightforward connection between someone’s individual characteristics and their risk of bullying or being bullied.1 Experts suggest that the most accurate predictor of bullying is the broader school and social environment.2 That said, research has consistently found some characteristics that tend to be more common among children and young people involved with bullying. While these characteristics can be helpful to measure risk, they are not the cause of the behaviour. 

A student completing a puzzle and scratching his head, as if thinking

The most accurate predictor of bullying is the broader school and social environment.

Factors that increase the risk of being bullied 

Research over the past ten years suggests that certain characteristics may increase the risk of being bullied. In general, anything that sets a student apart from their peer group makes them more vulnerable to bullying.

Some characteristics that may make people more vulnerable to being bullied include:

  • having been bullied before3
  • having bullied in some situations as well as being bullied4
  • being perceived as gender non-conforming and/or LGBTIQ+5
  • experiencing deprivation (a lack of basic needs, emotional support or educational opportunities) or having low socio-economic status6
  • being neurodivergent (for example, autism or ADHD)7
  • mental illness and/or mood disorders8
  • physical and/or intellectual disabilities9
  • medical conditions, including food allergies10
  • belonging to a religious minority11
  • belonging to a racial minority12
  • poor emotional control13
  • experiencing loneliness or isolation from peers14
  • being the child of someone who was bullied15
  • being a carer or having caring responsibilities at home16
  • low parental support17
  • substance use18
  • impulsivity19
  • low school connectedness or sense of belonging20
  • being perceived as different in any way by their peers.21

These traits do not cause bullying. They are simply characteristics that have been found to be more common among children and young people who experience bullying. A person being bullied does not cause the bullying to happen because of their individual characteristics.

Factors that increase the risk of bullying others

There are certain traits that are more common among children and young people who bully others. These characteristics do not cause the bullying, but they can help identify and support children and young people who may be a greater risk of bullying others. Traits associated with bullying behavior include:

  • having bullied in some situations as well as being targeted22
  • having been bullied23
  • low parental support24
  • substance use25
  • low social (school, family, community) connectedness or ‘belonging'26
  • low levels of empathy and/or being morally disengaged27
  • witnessing domestic violence28
  • high anger levels29
  • impulsivity30
  • low agreeableness (low tendency to be altruistic, helpful, compassionate, trusting and polite)31
  • narcissism.32

While these traits are associated with bullying behaviours, there is no simple cause-and-effect relationship between individual characteristics and involvement in bullying.33

There are also characteristics that act as protective factors against bullying others. These are covered in detail in the Prevent section of the website.

Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying has some unique risk factors in addition to the bullying risk factors already mentioned.34

The likelihood of cyberbullying (being cyberbullied and/or cyberbullying others) increases with the amount of time spent online.

Children and young people are more likely to cyberbully others if they:

  • use computers in private spaces (such as their bedrooms)
  • engage in risky online behaviour (such as sharing passwords with friends or giving personal information to strangers)
  • think they and others are anonymous online
  • play video games with high violence or maturity ratings.

Preventative factors

There also characteristics which act as protective factors against bullying and cyberbullying.

Find out more

  1. Thornberg, R., Wänström, L., Gini, G., Varjas, K., Meyers, J., Elmelid, R., Johansson, A., & Mellander, E. (2021). Collective moral disengagement and its associations with bullying perpetration and victimization in students. Educational Psychology, 41(8), 952–966.
  2. Konishi, C., Miyazaki, Y., Hymel, S., & Waterhouse, T. (2017). Investigating associations between school climate and bullying in secondary schools: Multilevel contextual effects modeling. School Psychology International, 38(3), 240–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034316688730
  3. Skrzypiec, G., Askell-Williams, H., Slee, P.T., & Lawson, M.J. (2018). Involvement in bullying during high school: A survival analysis approach. Violence and Victims, 33(3), 563–582. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-17-00009
  4. Lereya, S.T., Copeland, W.E., Zammit, S., & Wolke, D. (2015). Bully/victims: A longitudinal, population-based cohort study of their mental health. European Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 24, 1461–1471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0705-5.
  5. UNESCO. (2019). Behind the numbers: Ending school violence and bullying. https://doi.org/10.54675/TRVR4270
  6. Redmond, G., Main, G., O’Donnell, A.W., Skattebol, J., Woodman, R., Mooney, A., Wang, J., Turkmani, S., Thomson, C., & Brooks, F. (2022). Who excludes? Young people’s experience of social exclusion. Journal of Social Policy, 53(1), 236–259. doi.org/10.1017/S0047279422000046
  7. Efron, D., Wijaya, M., Hazell, P., & Sciberras, E. (2021). Peer victimization in children with ADHD: A community-based longitudinal study. Journal of Attention Disorders, 25(3), 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054718796287; Carrington, S., Campbell, M., Saggers, B., Ashburner, J., Vicig, F., Dillon-Wallace, J., & Hwang, Y.S. (2017). Recommendations of school students with autism spectrum disorder and their parents in regard to bullying and cyberbullying prevention and intervention. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 21(10), 1045–1064. doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2017.1331381
  8. Boyes, M.E., Leitão, S., Claessen, M., Badcock, N.A., & Nayton, M. (2020). Correlates of externalising and internalising problems in children with dyslexia: An analysis of data from clinical casefiles. Australian Psychologist, 55(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12409
  9. O’Moore, M., & McGuire, L. (2021). Disablist bullying. In P.K. Smith, & J. O’Higgins Norman (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of bullying (Vol. 1, pp. 342–360). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118482650; Moffat, A.K., Redmond, G., & Raghavendra, P. (2019). The impact of social network characteristics and gender on covert bullying in Australian students with disability in the middle years. Journal of School Violence, 18(4), 613–629. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2019.1644180
  10. Fong, A.T., Katelaris, C.H., & Wainstein, B.K. (2018). Bullying in Australian children and adolescents with food allergies. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, 29(7), 740–746. https://doi.org/10.1111/pai.12955
  11. Gross, Z., & Rutland, S.D. (2014). Combatting antisemitism in the school playground: An Australian case study. Patterns of Prejudice, 48(3), 309–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2014.918703; Brooks, M.C., Ezzani, M.D., Sai, Y., & Sanjakdar, F. (2023). Racialization of Muslim students in Australia, Ireland, and the United States: Cross-cultural perspectives. Race Ethnicity and Education, 26(2), 164–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2021.1997977
  12. Baak, M. (2019). Racism and othering for South Sudanese heritage students in Australian schools: Is inclusion possible? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 23(2), 125–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2018.1426052; Mishra, A., Ray, R., & Risse, L. (2018). A multidimensional dynamic measure of child disadvantage: A methodological tool for policymakers. Social Indicators Research, 139(3), 1187–1218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1742-x; Priest, N., Perry, R., Ferdinand, A., Paradies, Y., & Kelaher, M. (2014). Experiences of racism, racial/ethnic attitudes, motivated fairness and mental health outcomes among primary and secondary school students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1672–1687.
  13. Schokman, C., Downey, L.A., Lomas, J., Wellham, D., Wheaton, A., Simmons, N., & Stough, C. (2014). Emotional intelligence, victimisation, bullying behaviours and attitudes. Learning and Individual Differences, 36, 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.10.013
  14. Karga, S., Bibou-Nakou, I., & Giaglis, G. (2013). Parental views of children’s bullying experience, coping strategies and their association with parenting practices. School bullying: Predictive factors, coping strategies, and effects on mental health, 1–36.
  15. Allison, S., Roeger, L., Smith, B., & Isherwood, L. (2014). Family histories of school bullying: Implications for parent-child psychotherapy. Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists, 22(2), 149–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856214520791
  16. Alfonzo, L.F., Singh, A., Disney, G., & King, T. (2023). The mental health impact of school bullying among young carers in Australia: A causal mediation analysis. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-43464-5
  17. Ersozlu, Z., Wildy, H., Ersozlu, A., Lawrence, D., Karakus, M., Sorgo, A., Usak, M., Kubiatko, M., & Chang, C.Y. (2020). Self-esteem, bullying perpetration/victimization and perceived parental support in a nationally representative sample of Australian students. Revista De Cercetare Si Interventie Sociala, 69, 49–68. https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.69.3
  18. Kelly, E.V., Newton, N.C., Stapinski, L.A., Slade, T., Barrett, E.L., Conrod, P.J., & Teesson, M. (2015). Concurrent and prospective associations between bullying victimization and substance use among Australian adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 154, 63–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.06.012; Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J.W. (2008). Cyberbullying: An exploratory analysis of factors related to offending and victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29, 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701457816; Kristsotakis, G., Papanikolaou, M., Androulakis, E., & Philalithis, A.E. (2017). Associations of bullying and cyberbullying with substance use and sexual risk taking in young adults. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 49, 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnu.12299
  19. Kelly, E.V., Newton, N.C., Stapinski, L.A., & Teesson, M. (2017). Prospective associations between personality and bullying among Australian adolescents. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 52(2), 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867417726583
  20. Aldridge, J.M., Fraser, B.J., Fozdar, F., Ala’i, K., Earnest, J., & Afari, E. (2016). Students’ perceptions of school climate as determinants of wellbeing, resilience and identity. Improving schools, 19(1), 5–26.
  21. UNESCO. (2019). Behind the numbers: Ending school violence and bullying. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000366483
  22. Hemphill, S.A., & Heerde, J.A. (2014). Adolescent predictors of young adult cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among Australian youth. Journal Of Adolescent Health, 55(4): 580–587. doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.04.014
  23. Skrzypiec, G., Askell-Williams, H., Slee, P.T., & Lawson, M.J. (2018). Involvement in bullying during high school: A survival analysis approach. Violence and Victims, 33(3), 563–582. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-17-00009
  24. Ersozlu, Z., Wildy, H., Ersozlu, A., Lawrence, D., Karakus, M., Sorgo, A., Usak, M., Kubiatko, M., & Chang, C.Y. (2020). Self-esteem, bullying perpetration/victimization and perceived parental support in a nationally representative sample of Australian students. Revista De Cercetare Si Interventie Sociala, 69, 49–68. https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.69.3
  25. Vassallo, S., Edwards, B., Renda, J., & Olsson, C.A. (2013). Bullying in early adolescence and antisocial behavior and depression six years later: What are the protective factors? Journal of School Violence, 13(1), 100–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2013.840643; Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J.W. (2008). Cyberbullying: An exploratory analysis of factors related to offending and victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29, 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701457816; Kristsotakis, G., Papanikolaou, M., Androulakis, E., & Philalithis, A.E. (2017). Associations of bullying and cyberbullying with substance use and sexual risk taking in young adults. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 49, 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnu.12299.
  26. Aldridge, J.M., McChesney, K. & Afari, E. (2020). Associations between school climate and student life satisfaction: Resilience and bullying as mediating factors. Learning Environment Research, 23, 129–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-019-09296-9; Tanrikulu, I., & Campbell, M. (2015). Correlates of traditional bullying and cyberbullying perpetration among Australian students. Children and Youth Services Review, 55, 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.06.001
  27. Bussey, K., Fitzpatrick, S., & Raman, A. (2015). The role of moral disengagement and self-efficacy in cyberbullying. Journal of School Violence, 14(1), 30–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2014.954045; Pozzoli, T., Gini, G., & Thornberg, R. (2016). Bullying and defending behavior: The role of explicit and implicit moral cognition. Journal of School Psychology, 59, 67–81. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.jsp.2016.09.005; Tanrikulu, I., & Erdur-Baker, Ö. (2019). Motives behind cyberbullying perpetration: A test of uses and gratifications theory. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 36(13–14), 6699–6724. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518819882; Zych, I., Farrington, D.P., & Ttofi, M.M. (2019). Protective factors against bullying and cyberbullying: A systematic review of meta-analyses. Aggression and violent behaviour, 45, 4–19.
  28. Bowes, L., Arseneault, L., Maughan, B., Taylor, A., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T.E. (2009). School, neighborhood, and family factors are associated with children's bullying involvement: A nationally representative longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(5), 545–553. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819cb017
  29. Tanrikulu, I., & Campbell, M. (2015). Correlates of traditional bullying and cyberbullying perpetration among Australian students. Children and Youth Services Review, 55, 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.06.001
  30. Kelly, E.V., Newton, N.C., Stapinski, L.A., & Teesson, M. (2017). Prospective associations between personality and bullying among Australian adolescents. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 52(2), 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867417726583
  31. Mitsopoulou, E., & Giovazolias, T. (2015). Personality traits, empathy and bullying behavior: A meta-analytic approach. Aggression and violent behavior, 21, 61–72.
  32. Fanti, K.A., & Henrich, C.C. (2015). Effects of self-esteem and narcissism on bullying and victimization during early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 35(1), 5–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431613519498; Van Geel, M., Goemans, A., Toprak, F., & Vedder, P. (2017). Which personality traits are related to traditional bullying and cyberbullying? A study with the Big Five, Dark Triad and sadism. Personality and Individual Differences, 106, 231–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.063; Fan, C., Chu, X., Zhang, M., & Zhou, Z. (2019). Are narcissists more likely to be involved in cyberbullying? Examining the mediating role of self-esteem. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(15), 3127–3150. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516666531
  33. Thornberg, R., Wänström, L., Gini, G., Varjas, K., Meyers, J., Elmelid, R., Johansson, A., & Mellander, E. (2021). Collective moral disengagement and its associations with bullying perpetration and victimization in students. Educational Psychology, 41(8), 952–966.
  34. Sae-Koew, J., Gonsalkorale, K., & Cross, D. (2024). Protecting Children and Adolescents from Cyberbullying: An Evidence Review of Risk and Protective Factors and Effective Interventions.

Risk factors

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Understand

What is bullying?
Talking about bullying
Signs of bullying
Types of bullying
Understanding cyberbullying
Who's involved in bullying
The impacts of bullying
Risk factors